By now, the majority of the human population is more or less familiar with the state of the current pandemic: Sars-CoV-2. For example, it is known that this is a deadly disease that infects the respiratory system. However, what the majority of the people do not think about as often are the environmental impacts that the disease outbreak has on the rest of the world regarding both biotic and abiotic factors. Those environmental consequences affect marginalized and more susceptible groups, which is one of the many reasons for the environmental justice movement from the epidemiological realm.
Advocating for environmental justice can be overwhelming because there is a multitude of problems that can be associated with the term. Over the course of history, there are a few infectious diseases that one should be familiar with to form connections with other modern-day issues such as poverty and racial inequality. To start on more of a familiar note, the bubonic plague is the infection in the lungs that could result in coughing up blood and swollen lymph nodes (buboes) in the groin, armpit, or neck. Humans can contract it after being bitten by a rodent flea or handling an animal infected with the plague itself. This infectious disease was not eradicated because it can still be found in Africa, Asia, and some parts of the Americas. Tuberculosis (TB) is another respiratory disease in which it infects the lungs and potentially the kidney, spine, and brain. It can be spread by breathing in bacteria from bodily fluids of an infected person and occurs in nearly every part of the world to this day.
Moving more towards diseases that have mosquitoes as their transmitter (also referred to as a vector), malaria is one of the deadliest diseases found in developing nations. Symptoms can include but are not limited to fever, headache, muscle aches, fatigue, vomiting, diarrhea, and even anemia/jaundice due to the loss of blood cells. Being a parasitic disease from an infected mosquito, the cases are more prevalent in moist areas. It occurs in more than 100 countries and territories worldwide such as Africa and South Asia. West Nile Virus (WNV) contains similar human health effects to malaria, but also can include stupor, disorientation, paralysis, and numbness. Again, it is transmitted to humans by an infected mosquito obtained from an infected bird. WNV is commonly found in Africa, Europe, and the Middle East. The final well-known mosquito-transmitted disease is Zika virus. Occurring in tropical Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific Islands, this virus is quite concerning relative to the potential birth defects that a woman can pass on to her offspring if infected. In 2020, there have been no cases in the United States.
Two prevalent infectious diseases that heavily affect the digestive system are cholera and dysentery. Cholera stems from infected water, whereas dysentery is transmitted through contaminated food and/or water with feces. Because infection is contracted through poor water quality, these diseases are going to be commonly found in less developed areas of Africa, South America, and Asia. The human health effects include diarrhea, vomiting, and dehydration (which can be fatal). The most effective way to prevent transmitting these diseases is to have more sanitary wastewater treatment facilities, however achieving this is easier said than done. A country must experience demographic transition—economic development to help reduce crude death rates.
Finally, gearing more towards respiratory viruses, MERS (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome) and SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) both result in a fever, cough, and even pneumonia. Although their symptoms may seem similar, transmission greatly varies. MERS is contracted through camels throughout the world, but SARS is transmitted through inhaling or touching infected fluids typically in Asia.
One of the most detrimental effects that will occur in the near future is the increased spread of these diseases, especially those that are carried through mosquitos. There is substantial evidence supporting this hypothesis because as the rate of global warming increases, vector-borne diseases will be able to spread to warmer climates. According to the Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases (TDR), “...changes such as increased rainfall can affect African drylands and so increase the burden of water-related vector-borne diseases in areas already susceptible to poverty” (TDR 2). The biggest solution to reduce the effects of this is to increase scientific research funding. In order for more research to be conducted by educated individuals, financial support is necessary to gain access to technological developments. As a result, more information can be learned and future disease outbreaks can be prevented and possibly even eradicated.
Abiotic factors such as temperature, light exposure, pH, biological oxygen demand (BOD), and dissolved oxygen (DO) all can be tested specifically in water to deduce the quality. Environmental scientists test these variables in order to enhance water quality for not only aquatic organisms, but also human usage. If a bacteria or virus is present in the water and not tested, it can contaminate drinking water. Thus, dysentery and cholera come into play. It is important to note that as the global average temperature is steadily increasing, mosquito breeding grounds will continue to increase as well due to the directly proportional relationship the two attain. As predicted by many scientists and environmentalists, the altered abiotic factors from climate change will have a significant impact on the future of mosquito-transmitted diseases.
Because both the living and nonliving factors play such a large role in the environmental justice realm, there are going to be long-lasting effects on communities around the world. For instance, “in the past 20 years, 4.2 billion people have been affected by weather-related disasters, including a significant loss of lives” (World Economic and Social Survey 2016). With this being said, marginalized and minority groups have been shown to be affected to a greater extent. A scientific report concluded that “developing countries are the most affected by climate change impacts. Low-income countries suffered the greatest losses, including economic cost at five percent of GDP” (World Economic and Social Survey 2016). The socioeconomic barriers that some face heavily afflict the quality of life one will experience. A common term used in the United States that is associated with this dilemma is called redlining, or “the practice of arbitrarily denying or limiting financial services to specific neighborhoods, generally because its residents are people of color or poor” (Encyclopedia of Chicago 1). These marginalized areas, more often than not, experience an absence of services as well as few green spaces. With more asphalt than vegetation, cities/industrialized regions will accumulate with people—the opposite of urban sprawl. Because the population will become denser, there will be an increased susceptibility to infectious disease outbreaks. Thus, a continual positive feedback loop for poverty, detrimental human health effects, and environmental injustice.
More recently, a report from the Association of Air Pollution and Heat Exposure with Preterm Birth, Low Birth Weight, and Stillbirth in the US concluded that “pollution from cars and power plants led to ground-level ozone” and is closely linked to “social determinants of health, including residence in urban areas with higher exposure to air pollutants” (Yerman 13 & 14). Despite air pollutants (nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, etc.) being located in a different realm than infectious diseases, they do have one thing in common: human health consequences and a result of environmental inequality.
Because environmental health disparities exist when communities are exposed to a combination of poor environmental quality and social inequalities that have more sickness and disease than wealthier, less polluted communities, research development and funding are some of the biggest solutions to combating this issue. For example, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences is an organization that “supports research and activities that aim to reduce environmental health disparities and promote environmental justice through a variety of programs, which are made up of interdisciplinary teams of researchers and medical professionals” (NIH 4). Not only is organizational effort necessary, individual actions are just as important. With proper precautions, preventing the spread of infectious diseases is plausible. To start, restrict travel when feeling symptomatic of illness. When a person is presenting symptoms, the people surrounding them are extremely likely to contract the disease. Another way is to practice safe sex. Getting tested for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and communicating with others will allow for a reduced transmission rate. One action that may have become more prevalent amidst the current pandemic is cautious food preparation. Making sure that food is prepared and cooked on sanitary surfaces and quickly refrigerating perishable food items can prevent potential interactions between bacteria, viruses, and humans. Although this may seem simple, it is effective to reduce spread: taking antibiotics for the amount of days they are prescribed. It is common for people to stop taking their medicine after they stop feeling symptomatic or supposedly better, which is not worthwhile. On the other hand, others may over-utilize these antibiotics, which can lead to antibiotic resistance. Possibly one of the most well-known things an individual should do multiple times a day is washing their hands. Especially important before preparing food/eating and after going to the bathroom, the amphipathic soap molecules remove the grit from the hands and wash it down the drain. Some other personal solutions include the restriction of sharing items (toothbrush, hairbrush, razor, water bottle, etc.), frequently disinfecting the areas where bacteria and viruses can accumulate (the kitchen and bathroom), and limiting contact with others when symptomatic.
Historically a controversial topic, the conversations regarding vaccinations are discussed more than ever. Obtaining immunization for an infectious disease can drastically reduce the chances of contracting it. The socioeconomic inequalities throughout the world allow some to have easy access to receive a vaccine, whereas others can barely afford the basic necessities of life. Environmental justice and infectious diseases truly do go hand and hand as they are interconnected with a great deal of cultural, ethical, physical, and emotional factors that are evident to modern-day.
References and Further Reading
“Environmental Health Disparities and Environmental Justice.” National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, www.niehs.nih.gov/research/supported/translational/justice/index.cfm.
Fani, Mona, et al. “Comparison of the COVID-2019 (SARS-CoV-2) Pathogenesis with SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV Infections.” Future Virology, Future Medicine Ltd, May 2020,
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7238751/#:~:text=Symptoms%20of%20the%20novel%20coronavirus.
“Preventing the Spread of Infectious Diseases.” Preventing the Spread of Infectious Diseases · University of Puget Sound, www.pugetsound.edu/student-life/counseling-health-and-wellness/health-topics/preventing-the-spread-of-infec/.
Redlining, www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1050.html.
“Report: Inequalities Exacerbate Climate Impacts on Poor – United Nations Sustainable Development.” United Nations, United Nations, www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/blog/2016/10/report-inequalities- exacerbate-climate-impacts-on-poor/.
“TDR | Environment.” World Health Organization, World Health Organization, 1 Apr. 2019, www.who.int/tdr/diseases-topics/environment/en/.
Tenenbaum, Sasha, et al. “Redlining Causes Deadly Urban Heat in Underserved Areas.” Moms Clean Air Force, 3 May 2021, www.momscleanairforce.org/redlining-environmental-inequity/.